•AUGUSTE COMTE
(1798-1857)
(1798-1857)
•INTRODUCTION:
§French Sociologist
§A Moralist
§Father of Sociology
§Established the relationship of Sociology with other fields of knowledge
•HIS WORKS
•The prospectus of the scientific works required for the reorganization of the society
•Positive Philosophy
•System of positive politics
•CONTRIBUTIONS OF COMTE
•LAW OF THREE STAGES:
•Law of three stages of Human Thought (Law of Human Progress)
•THE THEOLOGICAL STAGE
•Primitive persons tend to think in Supernatural terms
•All phenomenon is produced by immediate action of supernatural beings
•No priesthood because the gods were individuals residing in fixed objects
•Too many fetishes (Any object or idea eliciting unquestioning reverence or response, respect or devotion) created much confusion
•Fetishism was converted into polytheism, hence evolved the concept of priesthood in the societies
•Mental contradictions led to the arrangement of gods in a hierarchical manner
•Concept of monotheism
•THE METAPHYSICAL STAGE:
–Rationalization replaced imagination
–God does not stand directly behind every phenomenon
–Reasoning helped man to find some other order in the natural world
–Principles and theories gained ascendency over feelings and speculations
•THE POSITIVE OR SCIENTIFIC STAGE:
–The scientific way of thinking
–A positive state
–Origin and destination of the universe and the causes of phenomenon and study of their laws
–Observation and classification of the phenomenon
–Positive thinking suits the need of the industrial society.
•STAGES IN THE SOCIAL ORGANISATION AND PROGRESS
•Three stages in the development of Social organization
•Theological thinking is related to the military or monarchical social organization
•God would be there as the head of the hierarchy as King of Kings and as mighty warriors
•Divine sanction could hardly be challenged
•Dogmatism would prevail and its challengers would be punished
•Metaphysical stage produced a government dominated by “DOCTRINES OF ABSTRACT RIGHTS”
•A legalistic Social Organization
•More Formal and structured society
•In Europe Nation States emerged during this stage
•Third stage Positive thinking produced a society dominated by industrialists
•An Industrial society in which men inquire into the nature and utilization of natural resources and forces
•Transformation of the material resources on earth for human benefit
•Production of material inventions
•COMTE’S CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES
•Classified sciences according to increasing complexity, independence, and decreasing generality
•Any branch of knowledge reaches the positive stage early depending upon its simplicity and generality
•Considered Mathematics as the basic tool of the mind
•It is not a member of the group of sciences, it is their common basis
•Education without mathematics is faulty, inexact and unreliable
•Astronomy the most general and simple of all-natural science developed first
•Followed by other sciences such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology and finally Sociology
•Social sciences are most complex and most dependent upon other sciences for their development
•Hence they occupy the highest place in the hierarchy
•He further classified the sciences in Inorganic and Organic Sciences. Inorganic sciences (Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry) are easy to develop
•Organic Sciences such as Biology are more complex. “It involves the study of all life and the general laws pertaining to the individual units of life”
•COMTE’s VIEWS ON SOCIOLOGY
•Sociology represents the culmination of the development of Science. It is based upon Mathematics and is dependent upon Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Astronomy. These Sciences have taken time to free from theological and metaphysical speculations and thinking. Hence Comte argued that Sociology too would require some time to attain the full status of Science
•SOCIAL STATIC AND SOCIAL DYNAMIC
•According to Comte there are two divisions in Sociology
•SOCIAL STATIC:
•It refers to the “Study of the Laws of action and reaction in the Social Order”. It deals with the major institutions of society such as family, religion, economic, etc.
•It inquires into the co-existence of the social phenomenon
•There is a spontaneous harmony between the whole and a part of the social system
•The parts of the society cannot be studied separately
•When the harmony between the parts is lacking a pathological situation may prevail
•SOCIAL DYNAMIC:
–If static examines how the parts of the society are interrelated social dynamic focus on whole societies as the unit of analysis and reveal how they developed and changed through time
–It inquires as to how human civilizations progress in different stages
–Comte was convinced that all societies move through certain fixed stages of development and that they progress towards ever-increasing perfection
•RELIGION OF HUMANITY
•Scientific Religion or Religion of Humanity
•A society built upon scientific principles need badly a religion which Comte termed as Religion of Humanity
•Comte conceived a society directed by the spiritual powers of the priests of the new positive religion and the leaders of banking and Industry
•Scientific Sociologist priests would be the moral guides and will control the society
•They will use their superior knowledge
•Comte claimed himself to be the high priest of the scientific society
•Love for their fellows would be incorporated in the Individual man
•CRITIQUE
•Later years Comte considered not himself as a Social scientist but primarily a prophet and founder of a new religion that promised salvation for all the ailments of humanity
•Comte thus tried to create a purely “Social religion”
•Morally intoxicated and not a strict religionist
•He led an isolated life and developed strange thoughts
•Insistence on positive approach objectivity and scientific method contributed to the progress of social sciences
•Law of three stages reveals that man is becoming more and more rational
•An enormous wealth of ideas
•Maximum importance to the scientific methods and criticized the armchair philosophers
•Not only a pure science but also applied science. It helps to solve Social problems.
•HERBERT SPENCER
(1820-1895)
(1820-1895)
•Born in Derby England
•Only surviving baby in the family of George Spencer
•Highly individualistic
•Joined London and Birmingham Railways as an Engineer
•Later on joined “The Economist” as a journalist
•HIS WORKS
•THE LAW OF EVOLUTION
•Evolution an exciting the idea of the 19th century
•Influential sponsor was naturalist Charles Darwin
•Spencer saw social evolution as a set of stages through which all societies moved from simple to complex and from the homogenous to heterogeneous
•Law of evolution is the supreme law of everything
•Evolution is “a change from a state of relatively indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite coherent heterogeneity”
•Law of evolution is universal in character
•Biological analogies occupy an important role in all of Spencer’s Sociological reasoning
•Ever present process of evolution is leading towards human progress
•Man is predestined to progress
•“The change from the homogenous to the heterogeneous is displayed in the progress civilization as a whole; as well as in the progress of every nation and it is still going on with increasing rapidity”
•THE ORGANIC ANALOGY
•Society is like biological organisms
•SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE SOCIETY AND THE ORGANISMS
ØBoth are distinguishable from inorganic matter by growth
ØGrowth is accomplished by increasing complexity
ØIn both there is an interdependence of parts
ØProgressive differentiation in structure is accompanied by progressive differentiation in function
ØThe life of society and the life of an organ is far longer than the life of its one unit or part
•DIFFERENCES:
ØIn an organism the part forms a concrete whole but in a society, the parts are free and more or less dispersed
ØUnlike organisms the societies have not specific external forms such as a physical body with limbs or face
ØThe parts of society are not stationary and fixed in their position relative to the whole
ØIn an organism consciousness is concentrated in a small part of aggregate while in Society consciousness is diffused
ØIn an organism the parts exist for the benefit of the whole. In a society, the whole exists merely for the benefit of the individual
•SPENCER AND THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY
•According to Spencer science of Society is possible because in Society there is an order and of coexistence and progress. If there is order then the corresponding the phenomenon that is a social phenomenon may form the subject of science
•He tried to explain the growth of the society and its present state by applying the law of evolution
•He added to explain the known present society by means of unknown past
•Spencerian Sociology is also often associated with the “doctrine of the survival of the fittest” and Social Darwinism. But Spencer thought that competitive struggle was only dominant in early militant societies. An advanced industrial society would rely on cooperation, persuasion rather than aggression and conflict. Spencer contributed to the emergence of functionalism.
•He argued that social systems like individuals adapt to their environments by a process of internal differentiation and integration
•The evolutionary process of societies was from simple homogeneity in militant society to complex heterogeneity in industrial society
•The principal doctrine which Spencer derived from his Sociology was Social planning, social welfare, and state intervention interfered with the natural process of social evolution and progress which guaranteed personal freedom in industrial society
•Unlike Comte, Spencer was not interested in how to change society or how to make it better
•He was more impressed by the Darwinian thoughts and the principles of the survival of the fittest
•He hoped to describe the evolutionary process of societies through a better approach
•According to Spencer, Societies are bound to change
•No one should try to change the prevailing social order
•The change will come at its time
•There is no need to be critical of present social arrangement
•A sigh of relief for many in Victorian England, who were the supporters of the status quo and saw the sociologists with suspicion for the fear of social change
•CRITIQUE
•Spencer used his organic analogy in a ridiculous manner.
ØKing’s Council Medulla Oblongata
ØHouse of Lords Cerebellum
ØHouse of Commons Cerebrum
•If a society is like a human organism, it must experience a natural process of birth, maturity, aging, and death. Births and deaths of the societies is not a common process
•Spencer used his analogy in a very dogmatic manner but later referred to it as merely a boundary wall of a building a structure of deductions. He actually proceeded as if the scaffolding were the real building.
•EMILE DURKHEIM
(1858-1917)
(1858-1917)
•Also Known as founding father of modern sociology
•French Academic sociologist
•Worked as a professor of Sociology in Germany
•Later on returned back to France
•Lectured on Education and Sociology in France
•Actively concerned with French politics
•Values and principles to be incorporated in the French Educational system which was established on a secular basis
•HIS WORKS
•HIS THOUGHTS
•Society exists beyond ourselves
•Society is more than the individuals who compose it
•Society was here long before we were born
•It shapes us as we live in it
•It will remain long after we are gone
•Society has the power to guide our thoughts and actions [A marked difference between Sociology, Biology, and Psychology]
•Therefore cultural norms, values, beliefs are the objective realities
•Society is created by the people but once created it takes on a life of its own and demands a measure of obedience from its creators.
•PERSONALITY—Society in Ourselves
•Society is not beyond ourselves but in ourselves
•How we act think and feel
•Provides moral discipline that guides our lives
•Human beings need the restraint of society
•MODERNITY AND ANOMIE
•Modern societies impose few conditions
•ANOMIE:
A condition in which society provides little moral guidance to the individuals
•Industrialised Societies
led to sudden fame and wealth for some individuals thus breaking all the social and cultural ties and social support
•SOCIAL FACTS
•Domain of Sociology is the study of social facts and not individuals
•The significance of any social fact is more than what individuals see in their immediate life
•Social facts help society to operate as a whole
•Societies have their own realities which could not be reduced to the actions and motives of the individuals
•Individuals are molded and constrained by their social environment
•THE DIVISION OF LABOUR IN SOCIETY
•Distinguished the forms of Social order found in primitive and modern societies
•MECHENICAL SOLIDARITY: in primitive societies was based on the common beliefs and a consensus found in the collective consciousness
•Traditional societies
•Lock and key model
•Common sentiments
•Shared moral values
•ORGANIC SOLIDARITY:
Social order in industrialized societies cannot be explained in terms of contractual the arrangement between individual and society
•Individuals are motivated by self-interest
•Self interest will lead to social instability
•Industrialized and urbanized societies are more complex
•Division of labor has destroyed mechanical solidarity and social integration
•He examined the disruption of mechanical solidarity in Industrial societies
•He believed that a new order will arise in modern societies on the basis of organic solidarity
•Characterised by the interdependence of economic ties arising out of the differentiation and specialization within the modern economies
•A new network of occupational associations such as guilds that would link individuals to the state and the emergence within these associations of collectively created moral restraints.
•THE RULES OF SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD
•Sociology has its unique subject matter
•The group is a reality “Suigeneris”
•The analysis of group behavior should begin with the study of the collective phenomenon, not individuals
•Sociology as a science of social facts and social institutions
•In observing a social fact a sociologist must avoid all preconceptions
•The subject matter of every sociological investigation should comprise group phenomenon
•Indirect experiment, that is the comparative method is the only appropriate method to study the society
•He rejected Comte’s historical method
•The task of Sociology is to know the cause as well as the functions of the social facts.
•THE ELEMENTARY FORMS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE
•Analysis of collective or group forces to study the religion
•Group life is the generating force or source or cause of religion
•Religious ideas and practices always symbolize the social group
•Main function of the religion is the creation, reinforcement, and maintenance of social solidarity
•So long as Society persists so long will be the religion
•THE THEORY OF SUICIDE
•Durkheim probably intend to serve the two purposes
•To refute the theories of suicide based upon biological, genetic, climatic, geographic and psychological factors
•To explain with empirical evidence his own sociological theoretical explanation
•No societies in which suicides do not occur
•A normal, regular occurrence
•An index of disintegrating forces in the social structure
•Different rates of suicides are the consequences of the difference in degree and type of social solidarity
•An individual phenomenon whose causes are social
•Suicidogenic impulses running through the society
•Origin is not in the individual but collectively
•Vary from one group to another, from one society to another from one religion to another.
•TYPES OF SUICIDE
•FATALISTIC SUICIDE;
As a result of excessive social regulation, e.g. Once common in slaves
•ALTURISTIC SUICIDE;
For the good of the groups.
•EGOSTIC SUICIDE;
Where the individual is more concerned with his/her own good. Excess of individualism
•ANOMIC SUICIDE;
When the individual experiences a state of norm-lessness or when norms conflicted
•CRITIQUE
•He never wrote any specific treaties on sociology but his writings on various sociological topics provide a convincing answer to many problems
•Discussion on collective representation and collective conscience threw light on the relationship between individual and society
•He focused on the issue of how social interactions and relationships significantly influence an individual’s attitudes, ideas, and sentiments
•A positivist and strongly recommended the application of the methods of physical science to social science
•He has made Social fact a central in his method. A social fact is a phase of behavior thinking, feeling or acting, but coercive in nature
•Completely neglected the importance of the individual decision
•Society is real to be sure but so is the individual and the two it should be remembered is always in interaction.
•MAX WEBER
(1864-1920)
•A German Sociologist
•Deep imprints on Sociology
•Interested in Political Affairs and government
•Born in a rich Protestant family
•A dispute ridden family
•A student of Roman Law and Roman Institutions
•Rendered military services in Germany
•Later on joined the vocation of teaching
•HIS WORKS
•The Protestant Ethics and the spirit of Capitalism
•German Economic History
•Max Weber on The methodology of Social Sciences
•Essays on Sociology
•The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation
•Economy and Society an Unfinished Work
•The Religion of China---The Religion of India----Ancient Judaism
•Science as a Vocation and Politics as a Vocation
•The City
•WEBER AND HIS SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION
•Wrote extensively on the subject of religion
•Observed a closed connection between religion and economic forces
•Concept of religion was more ethical than theological
•Religion is a vital influence on everyday life
•He tried to answer the one fundamental question, “to what extent the religious conceptions of the world and of existence has influenced the economic behavior of various societies”
•He wanted to refute the basic theory of Marx that “all cultural phenomenon including religion is fundamentally determined by the evolution of economic forces”
•Weber wanted to explain the economic behavior in terms of religion
•Weber wanted to establish two main propositions in his work
1. The behavior of the man in various societies could be understood only in the context of their general conception of existence or world view. Religious dogmas and their explanation also found a part of the world views. Hence the religious outlook of the people can help one to understand the behavior of individuals and groups including their economic behavior
2.Religious conceptions are actually the determinant of economic behavior and hence one of the causes of economic change
•Studied Western Capitalism and its connection with the religion
•Growing faster in the Protestant societies
•Weber’s hypothesis that a certain interpretation of Protestantism has created motivations favorable to the creation of capitalistic regimes
•In Weberian thoughts the ethic of conviction is seen as one possible expression of the religious attitude
•On the basis of his historical study Weber asserted that modern Capitalism emerged not simply by inner economic necessity but by the religious ethics of the Protestantism especially of Calvinism
•Weber made an analytical study of Protestantism to establish an intellectual or spiritual affinity between the spirit of the Protestant ethics and the spirit of Capitalism.
•He established a correlation between a religious way of thinking and an attitude towards economic activity
•Weber tried to discover whether or to what degree in other civilizations in China, in India, in primitive Judaism, and in Islam Social conditions were favorable o unfavorable to the development of Capitalism of Western type.
•Weber used the religious variable to determine and explain why Western Capitalism was not developed anywhere outside Western civilization
•Key to the birth of Industrial Capitalism lay in the Protestant reformation
•Industrial Capitalism was a major outcome of Calvinism, A Christian religious movement founded by John Calvin
•Concept of predestination
•Fate is set, people are chosen
•Why shouldn’t those chosen for glory in the next world, they reasoned, see the signs of divine favor in this world
•Applying rationality, Discipline, and hard work to the task
•Not spending and self-indulgence according to Weber as preached in various religious doctrines is a sin
•He argued that Protestants invested their savings in new technologies
•Hence Religious Ethics were transformed into world ethics
•This gave birth to modern Capitalism
•Traditional religion in Europe taught a passive otherworldly religion
•TWO WORLD VIEWS
•Greatest individual contribution to Sociology
•Difference between modern societies and traditional societies
•Understood the power of technology
•Marxs’ philosophy of materialism and Weber’s idealism
•How human ideas especially beliefs and values shape human societies
•Comparison of different societies at different time and place
•Relied on the ideal type. An abstract statement of the essential characteristics of any social phenomenon
•A way of defining a type of society in its pure form
•PRE INDUSTRIALISED Societies were characterized by traditions, values, and beliefs, transferred from generation to generation
•INDUSTRIALISED, CAPITALISTIC
Societies are characterized by rationality, which is a way of thinking.
•RATIONALITY
emphasize deliberate, a matter of fact, calculation of the most efficient way to accomplish a task
•Sentiments, ties to the past have no place in modern societies
•Weber viewed both the Industrial revolution and development of Capitalism as evidence of modern rationality
•Weber viewed technology as a major force for the historical change from tradition to rationality
•Some societies are eager to adopt modern technology, such societies make a breakthrough
•Some societies consider technology as a threat to life and those societies remain backward
•Weber considered Industrial Capitalism highly rational because capitalists try to make money in a way they can
•RATIONAL SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
•Distinctive social institutions
•Large scale organizations
•Specialised tasks
•Personal discipline
•Awareness of time
•Technical competence
•Impersonality
•WEBER AND BUREAUCRACY
•A significant contribution to the field of sociology
•Modern organizations are large scale organizations
•Based upon the powerful tool of technology
•Weber’s interest in the nature of power and authority and his realization of the inevitability of rationalization in the operation of large scale modern organizations led him to establish the theory of Bureaucracy
•Operation of large scale enterprise or organizations in the political, administrative and economic fields would be impossible without bureaucracy
•Bureaucracy refers to an instrument that has become indispensable for the rational attainment of goals of any organization in Industrial societies
•Bureaucracies can be understood as large scale formal organizations of modern society with specialized functions
•Bureaucratization and Rationalization go together because bureaucracies are organized according to the rational features
•FEATURES OF BUREAUCRACY
•Fixed area of official jurisdiction
•Governed by laws and regulations
•Pyramidal clear hierarchy of authority
•Administration based on written documents
•Special procedures for which special training is required
•Merit based officers appointed upon technical qualifications
•Appointed on a full-time basis and subjected to strict discipline
•Clear distinction between the private and public affairs
•An established career path and promotion is governed by seniority or merit
•Fixed salary according to the ranks with a pension at retirement
•Orders are communicated through proper channel
•Based in an office of its own and documents are maintained in files
•CRITIQUE
•The fundamental element of sociological investigation for Weber is “typical social action”. Social action or even a single individual is the basic unit of society. He never entangled himself with the problem of the relationship between the individual and the society.
•He convincingly denied the existence of any predominant determinant of social change
•He laid emphasis on rational action and stressed the role of ideas in social life
•He studied the concrete social situations and processes that must form the foundation of an adequate sociological theory
•He made clear the significant role of values in social life
•Contributed greatly to the understanding of social causation in human affairs
•He can be criticized to explain social reality in terms of individual motivation which blurred the line between sociology and psychology
•He did not leave a school of followers. “In keeping with the norms of science and scholarship, he sought the truth, not the followers.
•KARL MARX
•European concept of laissez-faire in politics
•Adam Smith’s Unseen hand
•Industrial revolution – A new class of proletariat emerged
•Do does not own its own instruments of production
•Relied upon those with accumulated wealth--Capitalists
•HIS LIFE
•Born in 1818 in Prussia/Germany
•A Jew by birth Later converted to Christianity
•Doctorate in Philosophy
•Profession of Journalist
•Died in 1883 in London
•HIS WORKS
•The Communist Manifesto
•The Kapital Das
•Poverty of Philosophy
•The German Ideology
•The Class Struggle in France
•DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM
•Motivated by the plight of a large number of industrial workers
•Marx claimed to be a scientific person rather than utopian Christian Sociologist
•He thought it totally useless to preach the doctrine of cooperation
•To investigate the forces that move the history itself
•It is possible only through scientific investigation
•Marx developed a philosophy of history
•The progress of an idea is dependent upon conflict
•Marx followed Hegel’s dialectic approach that progress results from the conflict of opposing force
•The clash according to Marx is of material forces and ideas are the product of the material environment in which men live
•In the social production men enter into definite relationships independent of their own will
•The sum total of these relationships constitute the economic structure of the society
•Mode of production determine the general character of the social, political and spiritual process of life
•At creation stage material forces of the products come in conflict with the social forces of production
•Period of social revolution
•Change in the economic foundation and entire superstructure of the society
•No social order ever disappears before all the productive forces for which there is a room in it have been developed and new higher relations of production never appear before the material conditions of their existence have matured in the womb of the old society
•THE FUNDAMENTAL DETERMINANT
•The fundamental determinant of all other developments is the forces of production
•The forces of production consist of raw material, natural resources, and techniques
•Forces of Production constitute the economic aspect of the society, STRUCTURE OF THE SOCIETY – The material aspect of society
•While all other institutions including; Law, Political Science, Religion, Philosophy is the superstructure and non-material aspect of the society
•Ideology is relative
•There is no single form of government
•Forces of Production determine the social relationships which in turn give rise to social classes
•THE CLASS STRUGGLE
•In early history cultural aspect and classes were at harmony
•Then at some point technology stepped in
•Emergence of different classes
•Antagonism between the proletariat and capitalist classes
•THE LABOUR THEORY OF VALUE
•Exchange value is determined by the amount of socially useful labor
•Marx excluded any effort of entrepreneur or owner
•Only useful labor
•Workers produce more value than wage
•Difference is the profit of the owner
•SURPLUS VALUE = What the worker produces – What he receives
•The worker is always paid a subsistence wage
•Employer owns the instruments of production
•Improvement in technology, More capital is required
•Bigger and fewer units of production
•Unemployment will increase
• The proletariat class will swell
•Decrease in the capitalist class
•Revolution
•Communes
•Communist society.
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