LIST OF NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE, Nobel Prize winners in English Literature, Literature Nobel Prize winners

 

LIST OF NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE 1. Rudyard Kipling – 1907 2. William Butler Yeats – 1923 3. George Bernard Shaw - 1925 4. Sinclair Lewis – 1930 5. John Galsworthy – 1932 6. Eugene O'Neill – 1936 7. Pearl S. Buck – 1938 8. T.S. Eliot – 1948 9. William Faulkner – 1949 10. Bertrand Russell – 1950 11. Sir Winston Churchill  - 1953 12. Ernest Hemingway – 1954 13. John Steinbeck – 1962 14. Samuel Beckett – 1969 15. Patrick White – 1973 16. Saul Bellow -  1976 17. William Golding – 1983 18. Akinwande Oluwole Soyinka -1986 19.  Joseph Brodsky – 1987 20. Nadine Gordimer – 1991 21. Derek Walcott – 1992 22 Toni Morrison – 1993 23. Seamus Heaney – 1995 24. Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul – 2001 25. John Maxwell Coetzee – 2003 26. Harold Pinter – 2005 27. Doris Lessing – 2007 28. Alice Munro – 2013

 

Deviant Behavior, What Is A Deviant Behavior, outcast, criminal behaviour, crime, outlaw, It’s Nature, Types, Forms, And Causes. ( Sociology)

 

Deviant behavior, it’s nature, types, forms, and causes.

Ø  Definition

Horton and Hunt

“Any behavior defined as a violation of the norms of a group or society is called deviance”

J.J. Macionis

“Deviance is the recognized violation of cultural norms.”

D.M. Newman

“Deviance is the violation of some agreed-upon norms that prevail in a community or in society at large.”

M.B. Clinard

“When human behavior is in disapproved direction and exceeds limit of community’s toleration is called a deviant behavior”

Robert Merten

“Deviance is a mean by which some people adapt to the dominant culture.”

David Popenoe

“Behavior that violates the social norms of a group or society is called deviance.”

John M. Shepard

“Behavior that violates the social norms is called deviance.”

R.S. Denisoff

“Conduct which violates accepted standards of behavior valued by the group or society.”

Ø  Types of deviance

1.       Primary deviance

Primary deviance is a deviance in which deviants are not being treated as deviant because people are unaware of it.

2.       Secondary deviance

In this type of deviant behavior, people are labeled and treated as deviant. Deviance becomes an important part of their lives.

Ø  Forms of deviance

1.       Drug addiction

2.       Suicide

3.       Family conflicts

4.       Discrimination against minorities

5.       Womanizing

6.       Homosexuality

7.       Child abuse

8.       Delinquency

9.       Crimes

Causes of deviance (theories of deviance)

Individual and society both can be the cause of deviance.

1.       Individual as a cause

There are many sociologists who believe that an individual can be the cause of deviance.

1)      Biological theory

Cesare Lombroso, William Sheldon, Hooton, Hentig are the sociologists, who have given such type of theory.

According to them, criminals could be identified by physical traits having low foreheads, prominent jaws and cheekbones, big ears, lots of body hair, and usually long arms. According to them, the body structure of the people may become the reason for deviance.

2)      Chromosome theory

A normal man has an XY chromosome pattern, a normal woman XX pattern. Occasionally, males are born with an extra Y chromosome, giving them XYY pattern that predisposes them to violent behavior. So, the individual is responsible for deviance.

3)      Religious theory

Walter Reckless and Simon Dinitz have presented this theory. According to them, mental illness and personality mal-adjustment are associated with some kinds of deviant behavior. One is diagnosed as mentally ill because of one’s deviant behavior, and then their deviant behavior is attributed to the mental illness. It goes like this:

“He is deviant because he is mentally ill.”

“What makes you think he is mentally ill?”

 “His deviant behavior.”

2.       Society as cause

Ø  Socialization theory

There are three theories of deviance which are related to socialization.

(a)    Cultural transmission theory

This version of socialization theory notes that people usually, internalize the values of those with whom they associate comfortably.

(b)   Deviant  subcultures

Shaw and McKay have introduced this theory. According to them, if most of one’s associates are deviants, one will probably become deviant. Thus, youths learn deviant values and behaviors which become fixated in their personalities.

(c)    Differential association

Sutherland has introduced this theory. According to him, criminal behavior is learned through contact with criminal patterns which are present, are acceptable and are rewarded in one’s physical and social environment. Thus a person becomes deviant if the deviant patterns are more common or more commonly rewarded, in the social world in which the persons move.

      II.            Anomie Theory

The concept of anomie was developed by Durkheim. The term translates roughly as “normlessness”. According to him, it is a state of harmlessness or rootlessness that results when cultural expectations are inconsistent with social realities.

Merton has listed four types of deviant behavior that may emerge if anomie is present.

(a)    Innovation

It occurs when people accept the cultural goals of a society but reject the actually accepted means of achieving the goals.

(b)   Ritualism

It takes place when a person accepts the culturally approved means but reject the goals.

(c)    Retreatism

When a person rejects both culturally accepted goals and the means of achieving those goals.

(d)   Rebellion

When the individual tries to overthrow the existing system and replace them with new goals and means.

 

 

 

 

 

John Milton----As A Poet; Chief Characteristics Of His Poetry

 John Milton (9 December 1608 – 8 November 1674) was an English poet, polemicist, a man of letters, and a civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. He wrote at a time of religious variability and political turbulence and is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost (1667), written in blank verse.

Milton’s poetry and prose reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, and the urgent issues and political turbulence of his day. Writing in English, Latin, Greek, and Italian, he achieved international renown within his lifetime, and his celebrated Areopagitica (1644)—written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship—is among history’s most influential and impassioned defenses of free speech and freedom of the press.

Let's discover some of his poetical characteristics here...

1)   His melody of diction:

Coleridge says of Milton that he is ‘not picturesque but a musical poet.’ Hallam says that ‘the sense of vision delighted his imagination, but that of sound wrapped his soul in ecstasy.’ Tillyard rightly calls him the ‘God-gifted organ voice of England.’ We may note Milton’s own view as expressed in Il Penseroso:

“There let the pealing organ blow

To the full Voic’d quire below

In service high and anthem clear

As may with sweetness, through mine ear

Dissolve me into ecstasies

And bring all Heaven before mine eyes.”

Music, both vocal and instrumental, was diligently practiced and cultivated in the Elizabethan age. Milton was born to the tradition of the Elizabethan poets and song-writers, who had the musical notes tuning in their heads when they wrote verses. Trevelyan rightly says,” in the poetry of John Milton, born five years after Elizabethan died, we read clearly how the three chief elements in the English culture of the day-music, the classics, and the Bible-combined to inspire the “ God-gifted organ-voice of England.”

The point is that Milton, without conscious effort, wrote in melodious lines, phrases and cadences. He had not to assemble musical sounds and study musical effects like Tennyson. With his remarkable gift of choosing and making musical phrase and cadence, he could easily untwist ‘all the chains that tie The hidden soul of harmony.’ This can be appreciated by reading his verse aloud.

To take an example from Book 1 of Paradise Lost, we see how well the line:

“ Can execute their aery purposes”— ( line 430),

Illustrates its meaning by the swift flow of its metre while he describes the air as:

“ Brushed with the hiss of rustling wings” — ( line 768)

We can almost hear, as we read, the rush and the sweep of the diabolic wings. So perfect, indeed, is the music of Milton’s line that they can charm us even when they are little more than a mere string of names.

Note the following lines from Book 1 of Paradise Lost—

“ From Aroer to Nebo, and the wild

Of southmost Abraim; in Hesebon

And Horoniam, Seon’s realm, beyond

The flowery dale of Sibma, clad with vines

And Eleale, to the Asphaltic pool”— (2. 407-411)

The sublime association of scholarship and romance which these names carry contributes no less to their musical effect.

 His Suggestive Power:

The most striking characteristic feature of Milton’s poetry is his suggestive power. The effect of hid poetry produced, not so much by what it expresses, as by what it suggests. The opening vista of associations is the main thing in his poetry. It may be remembered that Milton was well-studied in Latin and Greek. His poetry is full of allusion to the Bible and the classics. This accounts for the suggestiveness of hod poetry.

Macaulay writes, “We often hear of the magical influence of poetry. The expression in general means nothing; but applied to the writing of Milton, it is most appropriate. His poetry acts like an incantation. Its merits lie less in its obvious meaning than its occult power. They would seem, at first sight, to be no more in his words than in other words, but they are words of enchantment. No sooner are they pronounced than the past is present and the distant near. New forms of beauty start at once into existence and all the burial-places of the memory give up their dead. Change the structure of the sentence, substitute one synonym for another, and the whole effect is destroyed. The spell loses its power.”

“ In support of these observations, we may remark that any passage in the poems of Milton is more generally known or more frequently repeated than those which are little more than muster-rolls of names. They are not always more appropriate or more melodious than other names. Every one of them is the first link in a long chain of associated ideas. Like the dwelling place of our infancy revisited in manhood, like the song of our country heard in a strange land, they produce upon us an effect wholly independent of their intrinsic value. One transports us back to a remote period of history. Another places us among the noble scenes and manners of a distant region. A third evokes all the dear classical recollections of childhood, the schoolroom, the dog-eared Virgil, the holiday, and the prize. A forth bring before us the splendid phantoms of chivalrous romance, the trophied lists, the embroidered housings, the quaint devices, the haunted forests, the enchanted gardens, the achievements of enamored knights, and the smiles of a rescued princess.”

His sense of beauty:

In a letter, dated September 23, 1637, to his friend Diodati, Milton wrote, “Whatever the Deity may have bestowed upon me in other respects, he has certainly inspired me, if any ever were inspired, with a passion for the good and the beautiful. Nor did Ceres, according to the table, ever seek her daughter Proserpine with such unceasing solicitude as I have sought this idea of the beautiful in all the forms and appearances of things, for many are the shapes of things Divine. Day and night I am wont to continue the search.” Keats could not have expressed his love of the beautiful on more passionate language. One of the inheritors of the Renaissance culture, Milton gives expression to this love of beauty in almost all his poems. In L’Allegro and Il Penseroso there is little, that is distinctly Puritan. Note how tenderly he sketches a rural scene in L’Allegro—

“ the ploughman, near at hand,

Whistles o’er the furrowed land,

And the milk-maid singeth blithe,

And every shepherd tells his tale,

Under the hawthorn in the dale.”

Then he proceeds to describe his love of romance:

“ Towered cities please us then,” etc.

The poem breathes the joyous spirit of the Renaissance, coupled with a passionate love of beauty which the Renaissance fostered. Then in Il Penseroso, he depicts a scholar’s life:

“ let my lamp at midnight hour

Be seen in some high lonely tower

Where I may outwatch the Bear,

Which thrice-great Hermes, unsphere

The spirit of Plato.”

This is again the spirit of the Renaissance. However, the tone becomes austere in Il Penseroso than in L’Allegro. The poet is attracted by pagan learning and music of the cathedral. It is all in Elizabethan tradition in which a perception of the beauty of Greek myths and legends and a pagan note are inextricably woven. This pagan learning which Milton’s spirit had imbibed could not be wholly discarded even when he begins to write a more serious poem dominated by the puritan spirit. Not that in Lycidas where his puritanism is definitely articulate, he begins with and returns again and again to the imagery and style of a pagan poet:

“ For we were nursed upon the self-same hill,

For the same flock, by fountain, shade, and rill.”

His puritanism however aggressive it becomes, could not wholly kill his sense of beauty. When Milton could write in paradise lost of —

“ All that bowery loveliness,

The brooks of Eden mazily murmuring

And bloom profuse and cedar arches.”

Or of—

“The smell of grain, of tended grass, or kine,

On dairy, each rural sight, each rural sound”

To which he adds the lovely picture—

“It chanced with nymph-like step fair virgin pass

What pleasing seemed for her now pleases more.”

His sense of beauty could not have been lost.

His high Seriousness:

According to Mathew Arnold, ‘ High seriousness’ is the test of all great poetry. High seriousness marks both Milton’s character and poetry. He always had a high standard of poetry in his view with which he was always comparing himself, nothing short of which could satisfy his zealous ambition. He thought of nobler forms and nobler things than those he found about him. In fact, Milton’s chief talent, and indeed his distinguishing excellence lies in the sublimity of hod thoughts. He lived apart in the solitude of his own thoughts, carefully excluding from his mind whatever might distract his purpose or alloys its purity or damp his zeal. “With darkness and with dangers compassed around, he had the mighty models of antiquity always present to his thoughts, determined to raise a monument of equal height and glory, piling up every stone of luster from the brook,” for the delight and wonder of posterity. That monument certainly is the Paradise Lost, in which he” pursues things un-attempted yet in prose or rhyme.”

His superb Imagination:

It is the sustained power of imagination of none but Milton himself that could have shaped Paradise Lost. It is claimed for paradise Lost that the theme it handles is vaster and of a more universal human interest than any handled by Milton’s predecessors. In fact, it deals with the fortune of the whole human race, not of a city or of an empire. Apart from the profoundest significance of the Fall Of Man, the foregoing issue of the rebellion of the angels reacts upon Milton’s scheme of the universe, leading to the creation of the world for the habituation of man and to represent these changes being wrought in universal space through eternity in their true proportion and magnitude and in relation to the development of the theme is the task of a supreme imagination—an imagination that can soar above time and space, and feel at home only in infinity.

Lowell rightly says.”In reading Paradise Lost one has the feeling of vastness. You float under an illimitable sky brimmed with sunshine or hung with constellations; the abysses of space are about you; you hear the cadenced surges of an unseen ocean; thunders mutter round the horizon; and if the scene changes, it is with an elemental movement like the shifting of mighty winds......He produced these effects by dilating our imagination with an impalpable hint rather than by concentrating them upon too precise particulars.”